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The nasal cavity provides several inherent advantages for drug delivery: rapid absorption due to high vascularisation, avoidance of first-pass hepatic metabolism and non-invasive administration that supports patient adherence.6,7 In addition, anatomical connections to the brain via the olfactory pathway and a network of nerves, known as the trigeminal pathway (Figure 2), present an opportunity for CNS targeting that can bypass the bloodbrain barrier.1,2,8 Direct transport via the olfactory and trigeminal pathways is believed to contribute to CNS drug exposure, whereas drugs reaching the brain via systemic circulation must cross the bloodbrain barrier

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MOTS-c adds meaningful benefit at this level because cellular energy efficiency becomes a limiting factor when dietary deficit is already dialed in

Chronic stress and inflammatory stimuli promote microglial activation, leading to sustained release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, and excitotoxic mediators that disrupt synaptic function and neuronal integrity (30)